A Background to
BIBLICAL GREEK
Introduction
Why learn biblical Greek? With the many English translations and version available today, is it really necessary, or worth the effort, to spend the time and mental energy required to learn a language which is no longer in use? I heard it referred to once as a dead language. Don't believe it! Thousands all over the world, using many and varied computer programs and other methods, are learning to read from the Greek text of the Bible. And for a few very good reasons - the many translations and versions of versions of versions, not being the least. While it is true that all of these different renderings of the original text all tend to say the same thing, it is also true that subtle variations of thought are brought across the language divide during the process of translation. A nuance that finds an answering chord in the mind of one, may go completely unnoticed by another. To a fervent mind in hot pursuit of some important biblical truth, a word used - or a word not used - in the Greek text, may open up new vistas of thought not readily available to one who is bound to the translation whims of others.
Does this mean that one who cannot read the Greek text will be lost for eternity? No, not at all! However, sincere enquirers who cannot be satisfied with the testimony of another concerning the exact meaning of a passage of Scripture, should seriously consider embarking upon a course of study that will result in them being able to research and translate the word for themselves. Being able to do this is not the prerogative of any one class or group of individuals. Koine Greek was the common language of the people two thousand years ago; they were no smarter than we are. But is it not a very difficult language to learn? Anything can be difficult to accomplish if one wishes to think it so; or until one comes to that place where he, or she, really wants to do the thing. Yes, it may mean sacrificing the TV set and/or the mindless social gathering for time spent engrossed in the vocabulary and grammar of a new found love. So what! There are many who will one day hear the words: "'Assuredly, I say to you, I do not know you.'" (Matthew 25:12) When their lamps have gone out, Oh how they will then wish they could turn the clock back, and shunning the allurements and pleasures of the world, immerse themselves in God's veritable word. But then it will be too late. However, right now, there could not be a better way to become more acquainted with holy Writ, than to learn the original tongue spoken by the inspired Bible writers.
One's advancement along the road to this end will be directly proportionate to the diligence, and the prayerful commitment, that one invests in the task. In this endeavor, as in any other requiring a learning process, thirty minutes (More is even better) a day spent in study will ensure rapid progress. This small commitment of time dedicated daily is infinitely better than say five hours spent one day a week. Constant contact, repetition, and continued advancement, these breed familiarity, confidence, and an ever expanding desire to gain new heights in both knowledge and understanding. And the more proficient one becomes, the more comfortable that one will be in learning more, and ultimately, in reading the Greek text. The use of flash cards, either purchased preprinted or homemade using 3x5 cards, is virtually mandatory. Very helpful and handy preprinted cards are obtainable from Visual Education Association. You may contact them at (937) 325-5503, or visit their website at www.vis-ed.com .
This course has been kept simple and concise. It avoids as much incidental information as is possible while being careful to adequately cover the various elements of the subject. This is because of the many and varied backgrounds, intellect and circumstances of those who take this opportunity to learn through this medium. Progressive students who complete this course and wish to move beyond what they have learned here, will be desirous of procuring books of a more advanced nature. These are readily available from many Christian and/or College Bookstores. Another excellent source of academic publications of this nature is Christian Book Distributors. You may contact them at (978) 977-5000, or visit their website at www.Christianbook.com .
In this course, no reference has been made to the frequency of occurrence regarding words in the Greek texts of either the Old or the New Testaments. There is no real advantage in knowing that, in its various forms, the word le<gw appears more than 1300 times in the New Testament, while the word lepro<j is found there only 9 times. As the student begins reading the Greek text, new and unfamiliar words will come to light. At such times, use of a Greek Lexicon will be appropriate.
The title of this course is BIBLICAL GREEK - as opposed to New Testament Greek. This is by design , and for a very good reason. Familiarity with biblical Greek opens up the 'Bible' of of the early Christian church, as well as the New Testament; as it was the Septuagint, not the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, that was the commonly studied text of the early Christian community. The Greek text of the Hebrew Law, the prophets, and the writings, was in fact, the Scriptures of the apostles; the foundation upon which the theology, the historical faith, the prophetic understanding, and the eschatological view, of the New Testament was built. While it is true that much of its recorded origin is probably more mythical than factual; and given that it is itself a translation of the Hebrew text, because of its prominent role in the spreading of Christianity in the age of the apostles, it can be regarded as more 'original' than it is generally held to be. When Luke, writing about the Bereans, said: "These were more fair-minded than those in Thessalonica, in that they received the word with all readiness, and searched the Scriptures daily to find out whether these things were so," (Acts 17:11) he was undoubtedly referring to their study of the Septuagint. And when Paul, writing to Timothy, asked him to bring with him "the books, especially the parchments," (2Timothy 4:13) he was no doubt referring to portions, if not a complete copy, of the Septuagint. The New Testament writers quoted from it, Josephus quoted from it, Philo wrote about it, and the early church fathers quoted from it.
It is quite natural then, that the New Testament writers, who proclaimed the prophetic message of the Old Testament as having been fulfilled, did so in the common language of their day - in the very language of the ancient prophecies readily available in their time. Now there are certain words, and usage differences between the Greek of the Septuagint and that of the New Testament, but these differences are not so great as to cause the earnest student any great difficulty. Now please do not get the impression that the New Testament is here being relegated to some inferior status. By no means! What has been said hitherto, is to simply expand one's horizon to take in an oft overlooked treasure house of inspirational thought. The two testaments studied in the original Greek go hand in hand. They compliment each other, presenting the message of the Messiah to come, as having come; the message of the New Covenant still to be, as having been instituted in the baby born in Bethlehem. And finally, the two together proclaim the Christ promised in the lamb upon the sacrificial altar, and call us to "Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world." (John 1:29) They are the before and after of God's providence; the beginning and the end of the reign of sin; the alpha and the omega of God's grace administered through the Living Word.
With this introduction, I invite you to begin this course right here and now by considering the background to the language, its place in the broad spectrum of history, and its purpose in the fulfillment of the Lord's grand scheme to lighten the world with His glory. That divine plan has yet to reach its ultimate fulfillment. That this course may play a part - be it small or be it great - in the realization of that purpose, is the prayer of the one who prepared it. May those who do embark upon this captivating adventure, become workers who do "not need to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth." (2Timothy 2:15) May all who venture upon this road to new discovery always remember that "no prophecy of Scripture is of any private interpretation, for the prophecy never came by the will of man, but holy men of God spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit." Now our Lord promised the coming of that Spirit, saying: "'When He, the Spirit of truth, has come, He will guide you into all truth.'" This promise is of tremendous significance because, "the natural man does not receive the things of the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness to him; nor can he know them, because they are spiritually discerned." (2Peter 1:20,21; John 16:13; 2Corinthians 2:14) And so, no matter how far any of us go in intellectual attainment, when it comes to biblical truth, we all need that wisdom which comes from above - that wisdom which is freely given to all who ask for it in sincerity and faith.
Publications required for this course include: A copy of the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint) - Alfred Rahlfs Septuaginta, published by Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft recommended. A koine Greek New Testament - the Analytical Greek New Testament edited by Barbara and Timothy Friberg, and published by Baker Book House recommended. Also, for the Old Testament, a Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint in 2 volumes, compiled by Lust, Eynikel, and Hauspie, published by Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, or equivalent; and for the New Testament, Walter Bauer's Greek-English Lexicon, published by the University of Chicago Press, or the Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament edited by Barbara and Timothy Friberg, and N. Miller, published by Baker Book House. All these publications are obtainable from Christian Book Distributors, phone: (978) 977-5000 or you can reach them online at www.Christianbook.com .
The Greek font used on this page is: the greekth.ttf font, copyright Ted Hiderbrandt, and used by his permission. It is also found on the GREEK TUTOR CD, which is an excellent interactive learning aid. Contact Christian Book Distributors regarding availability. This font must be downloaded into your computer for the Greek characters to be displayed correctly on your screen.
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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Part 1. A Language for all people
!Oti to<te metastre<yw e]pi lao>uj glw?ssan ei]j gene>an au]th?j
2At that time 1then 3I shall confer 4upon 5(the)peoples 6(a)language 7in 9generation 8her
tou?.e]pikalei?sqai pa<ntaj to> o@noma kuri<ou
1(that) 3may call upon 2all 4the 5name 6of the Lord...
Sofoni<aj 3:9 (LXX)
Zephania 3:9 (LXX)
In Genesis 12:3, God's plan and purpose for His wayward world was expressed to the man of His choosing in these words: "'And in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed.'" However, this blessing was not confined to the then known world, or to that present generation, but was to have far reaching implications for all people to the end of time. Later this covenant made with Abraham (his name meaning literally: Father of a multitude) was confirmed thus: "'And I will establish My covenant between Me and you and your descendants after you in their generations, for an everlasting covenant, to be God to you and your descendants after you.'" (Genesis 17:7)
Following the fulfillment of this divine purpose down through biblical history is fascinating, exciting, amazing, and spiritually invigorating; but beyond the parameters of consideration here. Suffice to say, that "When Israel went out of Egypt, The house of Jacob from a people of strange language, Judah became His sanctuary, and Israel His dominion." (Psalm 114:1,2) Thus, the southern kingdom, Judah, became the domain of the priesthood, the depository of God's law - Jerusalem being the center of worship. Israel, the northern kingdom on the other hand, was destined to become His dominion dispersed among the nations to bear the light of a knowledge of the true God and true worship.
When we understand this, much of history takes on a new relevance. One such factor of history that finds its place in the grand scheme is the translation of the Hebrew Bible - the Old Testament Scriptures - into the Greek language. This great literary work is known as the Septuagint. It is the background to this important work, and the language which spawned it, that we shall consider here.
The Septuagint is then, a translation of the Hebrew Bible into the Greek language. Quite naturally, one may question the reason for such a translation. The reason is found in the 1diaspora. This dispersion of the Hebrew people took place over many centuries, beginning significantly with the capture and deportation of the northern kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians, under Sargon lll, in 721 BC. Now in this deportation, God's purpose for Israel - often referred to in the Bible as the House of Israel when reference to the northern kingdom is intended - began to find its fulfillment. Remember, the northern kingdom was to be His dominion.
Meanwhile, from very early times, inhabitants of the southern kingdom had been displaced into Egypt, either forcibly, or voluntarily for fear of Assyrian aggression. Then, shortly after 600 BC, Nebuchadnezzar, leading the Babylonian army, undertook several campaigns into the southern kingdom of Judah taking thousands of the inhabitants into captivity - Daniel and his three friends being among them. Later, according to Ezra (vide Ezra 2:64), 42,360 persons from the families of Judah and Benjamin (apparently none from the northern tribes who had earlier been removed from Samaria by the Assyrians), together with some of the priests and Levites, returned to Jerusalem. This left a large number of the Jewish captives remaining in voluntary exile.
Subsequently, during the period of the Persian ascendancy, many descendants of those who returned to their homeland, now migrated to Egypt, settling in a number of cities around the Nile delta as well as in upper Egypt. These settlers supplemented the established Jewish population already residing there. Thus it is safe to say, that by the time of Alexander the Great, there was already a sizeable Jewish presence in Egypt, a presence that was to become particularly concentrated in the city of Alexandria. And during the Grecian period, Alexander's favorable attitude toward these Jews was instrumental in them becoming well and truly Hellenised. Quite naturally, this included an intimate familiarity with the predominant language of the empire.
Now the Greek language of the day had its origin in the western lands of the then known world; and was a spin off of the Indo-European tongues. By 2000 BC it had become, at least to a certain degree, a distinct, cohesive language in its own right. Over subsequent centuries, however, dissected by both time and geographical boundaries, it was divided into many dialects. As our concentration here is not a study of the Greek language per se, we shall not concern ourselves with the details pertaining to the many variants of the language. Suffice to say, that with the emergence of Athens as the world's intellectual and cultural center by the end of the fifth century BC, its brand of Greek had become the language of the arts.
Among the great Attic Greek writers we find: the orator Demosthenes, the philosopher Plato, and the historian Xenophon. Then from the late fourth century BC, based to a great degree upon - but not limited to - the Attic dialect, a more universal derivation of the language evolved. Today we know it as koine Greek ( koinh<, meaning common ), because it became the common language of its day.
Further Movement to the West
The untimely death of Alexander in 323 BC, left his empire divided among his four generals - Egypt being the southern most division. And the government of this region fell to the Ptolemic dynasty. The first Ptolemy, Soter (322-285 BC), made a number of incursions into Palestine carrying many captives back to Egypt - to Alexandria in particular. And then, his liberality towards these Jews living under his jurisdiction, prompted many more to follow along the path to a better land and greatly enhanced quality of life. As a result of this movement of people, there sprang up in the north-east corner of Alexandria a Jewish enclave having its own ethnarch to preside over disputes that might arise between Jews living within the Jewish community.
However, the Jewish presence in Egypt was not confined to Alexandria. In both Cyrenaica, and Cyrene, Jews formed a significant portion of the local population. According to 2Philo, at the beginning of the Christian era, the number residing in Egypt exceeded one million.
The Religion Factor
It is of no little significance, that even in the land of exile, the Jewish people never lost the traditions associated with their religion; traditions based largely upon their history recorded in the Hebrew 3Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings. These they were freely permitted to observe, and many paid the Temple tax as conscientiously as those living in the homeland. Also, many made pilgrimages to the Mother City to attend national feast days. Simon of Cyrene was no doubt one of those (vide Matthew 27:32). As a result of this almost fanatical adherence to Judaism, centers of worship called Synagogues sprang up wherever Jews were found.
Despite their faithfulness to the national religion, however, there was one thing of their heritage that the Jews in Egypt were not able to retain, and that was the sacred language of their homeland. This one thing was overwhelmed by the predominant language of commerce, learning, and culture. In the east, Aramaic had gradually displaced Hebrew; but even there, in the days of Alexander, Aramaic was no match for the language of the empire. And to the Jews living in Egypt, the loss of Canaan's sacred tongue was a small price to pay for the prosperity and freedom of worship enjoyed in their expatriate situation.
The Divine Purpose in Motion
Now, "When the fullness of the time had come, God sent forth His Son." (Galatians 4:4) At last that time had indeed come, The twelve tribes born of the sons of Jacob, descendants of the patriarch Abram - of whom it was said: "'No longer shall your name be called Abram, but your name shall be Abraham; for I have made you a father of many nations.'" (Genesis 18:5) - were strategically dispersed among the nations of the world. From the British Isles to the Far East; from Upper Egypt to the North Sea, they were scattered among the peoples of the world. How do we know this? Because God Himself declared that it would be so, saying: "'I will not utterly destroy the house of Jacob,' says the Lord, 'For surely I will command, And will sift the house of Israel ( the ten tribes of the northern kingdom ) among all nations, As grain is sifted in a sieve; yet not the smallest grain shall fall to the ground.'" (Amos 9:9)
Regarding the tribes of the southern kingdom, we know that they too were spread abroad among the nations, as on the day of Pentecost, so we are told "there were dwelling in Jerusalem 4Jews, devout men, from every nation under heaven." (Acts 2:5) This explains Peter's reference to the "pilgrims of the dispersion in Pontius, Galatia, Capadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, elect according to the foreknowledge of God the father." (1Peter 1:1,2) James confirms that the dispersion refers to all twelve tribes of the Israelite nation, prefacing his epistle with the words: "To the twelve tribes which are scattered abroad." (James 1:1)
Returning to the day of Pentecost, Peter, during his sermon delivered to the Judeans gathered in Jerusalem made this significant statement: "'Therefore let all the house of Israel (the northern kingdom) know assuredly that God has made this Jesus, whom you (Judeans, or Jews) crucified, both Lord and Christ.'" Here Peter declares that the gospel was to be taken to the ten northern tribes, whom the Jews considered to be lost because of their apostasy and deportation from Samaria so many years before. It was this message that caused the Jews listening to Peter's address such consternation; as the record continues: "Now when they heard this, they were cut to the heart, and said to Peter and the rest of the apostles, 'Men and brethren, what shall we do?'" (Acts 2:36,37)
And so, with the actors in their allotted places on the stage of human history, the curtain was about to be lifted for the next act in the Lord's unfolding drama. In the time of our Lord then, we find the descendants of all twelve tribes scattered among the nations, all having access to one common language. The fullness of the time had surely come for the prophecy given through Zephania - that God would confer upon the peoples a common language so that all might call upon the name of the Lord (vide Zephania 3:9) - to be fulfilled. Into this background, enter the Greek translation of the Old Testament.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes: 1The term used to describe the dispersion of the Hebrew people among the nations of the then known world. 2Philo, Flaccus, Vl, 43. 3The Torah, also known as The Law, or Law of Moses, was, and still is today made up of the first five books of the Old Testament; the Prophets, comprising the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets; and the Writings (Hebrew: Ketubim), which included the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 1&2 Kings, and the other books of the Old Testament not included in the above. 4Greek: ]Ioudaioi, that is, Judeans. The name Jew comes from the geographic location of those southern tribes who settled in Judea. Thus, all true Jews are Israelites, but not all Israelites are Jews. The designation Jew, cannot be applied to the ten northern tribes whose homeland was Samaria.
Part 2. And God Gave the Word
o[ Qe<oj Ku<rioj dw<sei r[h?ma toi?j eu]agge<lizomoij duna<mei poll^?
1The 3God 2 Lord 4 will give 5(the)word 6to those 7who proclaim it 8a mighty 9a great company
Yalmo>j 68:11 (LXX)
Psalm 68:11 (LXX)
The Legend of the Seventy
About two hundred and fifty years before the Christian era, God, in preparation for the coming of the Messiah, moved upon the hearts of men to send His word, in the language commonly spoken among the nations, to all people everywhere. In a letter, supposedly written by one Aristeas to his brother Philocrates, the circumstances surrounding the origin of the 1Septuagint (LXX) are described in detail. Information gleaned from this letter is as follows: After Ptolemy Soter, Philadelphus (285-247 BC) ruled at the Egyptian court. The librarian at the time was Demetrius Phalereus. It was he who related to the Ptolemy the importance of the Jewish laws, which at the time were only available in the Hebrew language. This meant that a translation into Greek would be a worthwhile undertaking; and a copy of such translation would make a very valuable addition to the library. The King was delighted with the idea, and sent a representative of his court to Eleazar - the High Priest in Jerusalem - requesting that seventy-two elders of the Jewish nation, well versed in the matters of the Jewish religion, be sent to Alexandria to accomplish the work of translation.
On their arrival in Egypt, Philadelphus held a banquet for his guests; at which he discussed philosophy with them, tested their literary skills with tough questions, and satisfied himself that they were capable of performing the task they had been assigned. Three days later, so the word of Aristeas has it, on the island of Pharos, far away from the sights and sounds of the city, in a building especially prepared for the purpose, the work of translation was begun. Seventy-two days later, it was complete.
Based upon the letter of Aristeas mentioned above, this has become the legend. This account is recorded to varying degrees of consistency by Josephus, Philo, and the philosopher, Aristobulus. However, some of the details cannot be substantiated by historical evidence. For instance, according to the historical record, Demetrius, far from being anything at all under Philadelphus, was actually expelled shortly after the accession of the new monarch; and shortly thereafter was bitten by an asp - foul play suspected. He died around 283 BC. So then, What are the facts?
Aristobulus was a Jew living at the beginning of the second century BC, and the earliest writer to comment on the Septuagint. According to him, the Greek translation of the Law was completed under the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that Demetrius did in fact have a part in it, saying that he "negotiated the matter." As has already been stated above, Demetrius died about two years after Philadelphus came to power. Therefore, the work was either begun during the reign of Ptolemy Soter, and completed after his death, or it was begun and completed during the first two years of his successor's reign.
Now there is an observation that needs to be made at this point. In his comments, Aristobulus refers to the Law only; and does not mention the Prophets, the historical books, or the poetry of the Hebrew writings. Was he then referring only to the Law of Moses - the 1Pentateuch? Returning to Aristeas' version of the story, he also refers only to the "Jewish Laws" (ta> tw?n ]Ioudai<wn no<mima) making no mention of the other Jewish writings. Apparently, Josephus also understood it to be the Law alone ( a]lla mo<na ta> tou? no<ma... ) that was initially taken to Alexandria for translation. It must also be realized, that at the time in question, only the Pentateuch was what today we would consider 'canonical.' The Law of Moses was the only established sacred writing. While it is true that the prophetic books, along with other of the Hebrew writings which now constitute the Old Testament, were in circulation at the time, they were mixed in with many apocryphal works. But the Torah was without controversy considered sacred, and the foundation of the Jewish religion. It is fairly safe to conclude then, that the translation of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into Greek was begun somewhere around 285 BC, and was confined initially to the first five books of Moses.
However, once the process had been set in motion, it is evident that the work would be continued; especially as the thought of the Law in Greek had been received with enthusiasm by both the Alexandrian Jews and the Ptolemy. Philo goes so far as to say: 2"Even to this very day, there is every year a solemn assembly held and a festival celebrated in the island of Pharos, to which not only the Jews but a great number of persons of other nations sail across, reverencing the place in which the first light of interpretation shone forth, and thanking God for that ancient piece of beneficence which was always young and fresh."
Now in the prologue to the book Sirach, the author's grandson states that he arrived in Egypt in the 38th year of Euergetes (Ptolemy Vll Physcon Euergetes). That year was 132 BC. Now in that prologue, he also says that "the Law, the Prophets, and the rest of the books" ( a]lla> kai> au]to>j o[ no<moj kai> ai] profhtei?ai kai> loipa> tw?n biblw<n ) had already been translated into Greek. So then, it appears certain that at least by that date, a good deal, if not all, of the Hebrew Bible - perhaps with some of the apocryphal and deuterocanonical books - was available in the Greek language.
But is there any evidence that the translation of the Hebrew books was done over a period of time, and perhaps by a number of different individuals? There most certainly is! The Greek of the Septuagint varies from book to book. From the purest and most faithful to the Hebrew text found in the Pentateuch, to the sloppy and free Greek of Isaiah, there is evidence that many translators of varying expertise were involved in the process. Also, there are many words found throughout the Greek text that were peculiarly Alexandrian. For example, di<draxmon, a silver coin; a]rxioinoxo<oj, a chief cupbearer, and some words found later in the New Testament. Words like: pai<dion, a little child; presbu<teroi, elders; and a@xuron, chaff. The fact that these, and many other words, were common to every day life in Alexandria at the time we are concerned with here, is attested to by the recent discovery of a large number of papyri in the Faiyûm region of Egypt. These letters and legal documents were written in a Greek that is very similar to that of LXX.
All this points to the fact that the Septuagint was more the work of Hellenised Jews living in Alexandria, than to Palestinian Jews commissioned to do the translation. Perhaps the legend should be applied to the Torah alone, and not to the complete Greek text. Given the Ptolemy's interest in culture, learning, and the promotion of the Greek language, it is highly possible that he did encourage the project, and thus add impetus to what could have been a lackluster effort without purpose. But as it turned out, by the time of the Christian era, copies of the Septuagint were to be found throughout the Roman Empire. Copies have been discovered in various places, from the British Isles to Russia, from North Africa to the Netherlands. So then, "when the fullness of the time had come," the holy Scriptures were available all over the world in the common language of the empire. From those to whom had been committed the oracles of God, safely and strategically placed in a center of culture and learning, a chosen generation familiar with the tongue that God had given to the world, came forth that Word which was to be the chronicle of doctrine and faith for the Christian church. Into the hands of the descendents of the twelve tribes "scattered abroad," Judah His sanctuary, and Israel His dominion, was placed the inspired Word of God.
Philo, Josephus, the writers of the New Testament, all studied it, preached from it, quoted it, and thus endorsed its validity. So, putting all superstition and romance aside, the Septuagint still stands as a monument to God's foresight, wisdom, and power. One way or another, God's purposes never fail.
The New Testament
As has already been pointed out, the Septuagint was the Bible of the early Christian community; and was the fundamental authority in preaching Christ to be the Messiah. In the New testament, this fact is brought to light over and over again. One such passage is the record we have of the work of Appolos. Luke gives us a glimpse of this man's ministry in the book of acts, thus: "Now a certain Jew named Appolos, born in Alexandria, an eloquent man and mighty in the Scriptures, came to Ephesus... when he desired to cross to Achaia, the brethren wrote, exhorting the disciples to receive him; and when he arrived, he greatly helped those who had believed through grace; for he vigorously refuted the Jews publicly, showing from the Scriptures that Jesus is the Christ. " (Acts 18:24,27) The Scriptures referred to here, are undoubtedly those contained in the Septuagint - the man, being born in Alexandria with the name Apollos, put together with the territory in which he was working, makes this a virtual certainty.
In the New Testament there are 160 direct references to Old testament passages. Of these, 51 are found in the Pentateuch, 40 are found in the Psalms, and 38 in the book of Isaiah - the other 31 are taken from the remaining books. Several of these are obviously direct quotations from the Septuagint, some are slight variations of the Greek text, but closer to it than to the Hebrew, and some appear to be very loose renderings of the written word - either Hebrew or Greek - while retaining only the general thought. Such variations can be attributed to a number of causes: 1) The writer may have been quoting from memory. 2) The author may have been quoting a thought from an Old Testament passage in his own words rather than making an exact verbatim copy of the original text. 3) The text used may have been a 'version' of LXX. Just as we have many versions of the English Bible in circulation today, just so, there were many scribes making copies of the Greek text back then. Thus flavored by many minds, it is little wonder that these variations do exist. But what is an even greater wonder, is that there is such close consensus as does exist between the Old Testament, as we know it, and the citations taken from it. This one thing is apparent: The Septuagint was the principal source of Scriptural reference for the New Testament writers.
It is interesting to note, that the book of Acts, written by a Greek and addressed to a Greek, quotes exclusively from and generally follows LXX very closely. This is particularly significant as this book is primarily a record of the church actively spreading the gospel message. Almost all of the Old Testament quotations are found in this context. A prime example of this is found in Acts 8:32,33, where Philip is preaching Christ to an Ethiopian. Here, just a portion of the passage is placed alongside the corresponding text found in the book of Isaiah:
Isaiah 53:7 LXX Acts 8:32 NT
w[s pro<baton e]pi> sfagh>n h@xqh, [Wj pro>baton e]pi> sfagh>n h@xqh
kai> w[j a[mno>j e]nanti<on tou? kei<rontoj kai> w[j a]mno>j e]vavti<on tou? kei<rantoj
au]to<n a@fwnoj, ou!twj ou]k a]noi<gei to> au]ton a@mnoj, ou!twj ou]k a]noi<gei to>
sto<ma au]tou? sto<ma au]tou?
As can be expected, the gospels contain many quotations from the Old Testament. Matthew, having been written for a Jewish readership, contains more than do the others - some 40 in all - almost half of which, are not found in the others. Some of these citations are verbatim, or quotations varying only very slightly from LXX. John, in his gospel, quotes the Old Testament 12 times, 5 of which are verbatim, or with only a slight departure from the original text. Paul quotes the Old Testament 78 times, more than half of which are direct quotations from LXX with only slight variations. With these facts in mind, it is apparent that one cannot study the New Testament without coming into contact with the Old - more specifically, the Septuagint. For this reason, it is only logical to incorporate into a study of Biblical Greek, material which brings the student into direct contact with the Greek Old Testament.
Koine Greek is the original language of the New Testament. So then, when reading the Greek text of the gospels, the letters of Paul, the letters of Peter, or James, one is reading a text that is very close to the actual thought and intent of the writer. As the student progresses in the ability to read the Greek text with understanding, it soon becomes evident that certain passages, as they appear in the English Bible, just do not, and indeed cannot, adequately express the meaning of the original. In many cases, to fully convey the thought of the original, would require too many words - vide the Amplified Bible. This is because all languages exist in a state of flux, being modified by time and geographical boundaries; until eventually, a new language is spawned. In the process, words are often dropped by the wayside or given some different shade of meaning, while others are added to the vocabulary enriching both the spoken and the written word.
A knowledge of Biblical Greek brings those subtle variations that have crept into our language, and that tend to rob our English Bible of some of its vitality, into sharp focus. For instance, two Greek words, lo<goj and r[h?ma are both translated as 'word' in the English text. However, there is a subtle difference in meaning between these two words. The word lo<goj has more to do with the thought behind the word than with the word itself. From it we have the English word, logic. In the passage we are going to look at here, the word logic just would not fit. As we shall see though, in its context, lo<goj is used for a very good reason. The word r[h?ma, on the other hand, applies to the word itself with little reference to the thought behind it. From this word we have derived the English word rhyme - which has very much to do with the sound of specific words.
Now in 1Peter 1:23-25, we find these two words used, and both are translated into the English as 'word.' Verse 23 reads: "having been born again, not of corruptible seed but incorruptible, through the word ( lo<goj ) of God which lives and abides forever." But when we come to verse 25, we read this: "But the word ( r[h?ma ) of the Lord endures forever. Now this is the word ( r[h?ma ) which by the gospel was preached to you." To the early Christian church Jesus our Lord was the Word ( Lo<goj ). This is made abundantly clear in John's gospel, where he says: "In the beginning was the Word ( Lo<goj ) and the Word ( Lo<goj ) was with God, and the Word ( Lo<goj ) was God." A little further on in the same chapter, he goes on to positively identify just who this Word ( Lo<goj ) is, saying: "And the Word ( Lo<goj ) became flesh and dwelt among us." (John 1:1,14) So then, what did Peter mean by using these two words in this context? First of all, that we are born again through Christ who is the Word ( Lo<goj ) who "lives and abides forever;" and secondly, that this very truth is the substance of, or "word" ( r[h?ma ), the spoken or written word, "which by the gospel" had been preached to those to whom this letter was addressed. As a matter of interest, verse 24, along with the first half of verse 25 here, is a quotation from Isaiah 40:6-8.
There are many more finds like this one awaiting the intrepid seeker after the deeper meaning of God's immutable word. This is an exciting prospect; one that opens up a treasure chest from which one can bring forth "things new and old." But let no one ever lose sight of the fact, that learning of Him is the goal; this after all, is what it is all about. This is the very purpose for mastering Biblical Greek. And ultimately, as our Lord Himself said: "'this is eternal life, that they may know You, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom You have sent.'" (John 17:3) There is no better way to "grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To Him be the glory both now and forever. Amen." (2Peter 3:18) This is an adventure that once embarked upon, can become obsessive. So be it!
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Notes: 1Septuagint is the Latin for 70, hence the abbreviation LXX. The name was derived from the number of Jewish elders commissioned to do the work of translation. It was customary in ancient times to round off numbers of persons or things to the nearest ten - hence the number 70, not 72. 2Philo, On the Life of Moses, ll, Vll, (41). 3Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach, was originally written in Hebrew by a Palestinian Jew. It was later translated into Greek by his grandson during the latter's visit to Alexandria. If the assumption that the Euergetes referred to in the prologue was in fact Euergetes ll, (Physcon), the 38th year of his reign was 132 BC.
Bibliography: Henry Barclay Swete D.D., F.B.A., Revised by Richard Rusden Otley M.A., An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, MA, 01961-3473.
Werner Keller, translated by William Neil, The Bible as History, William Morrow and Company, Inc., New York, NY 10016.
Ernst Würthwein, translated by Errol F. Rhodes, The Text of the Old Testament, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan. Bruce M. Metzger & Michael D. Coogan, General Edition, The Oxford Companion to the Bible, The Oxford University Press, Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016.